The term ‘humanity’ in Confucius’s time was highly regarded, and he viewed human beings as being of one mind and spirit, which he described as “benevolence non maleficence”. In this way, he presented mankind as having the potential for positive and constructive change. He also felt that people should be respected as their equals, and not just for their material wealth. Humans should aspire to greater levels of excellence, but should resist the “tyrannical” characteristics of excessive materialism, which corrupts the mind.
The term ‘arts’ in modern Chinese is usually translated as ‘humanities’, but in the context of Confucius’s ideas it refers to practical, useful knowledge. He wanted all Chinese citizens to study the classics and to become scholars, artists, and writers. He wished that the learning done by Chinese leaders would benefit the people and improve the standard of living. This would benefit all classes and prevent the people from regressing to an unacceptable level. To him the value of literature and arts was to provide enlightenment and inspiration.
Ancient Chinese art has changed greatly through the ages; many styles have been lost to modernity, but Confucius believed that true art could never be lost. Therefore, he encouraged the translation and publication of classical works into Chinese, to ensure that Confucius’s works would benefit China, and indeed, westerners, too. This is why many of Confucius’ books are now available in English. As a result, Confucius enjoyed a great deal of success as a teacher of education, not only in China but in Japan, Korea, Vietnam, and Taiwan.
However, some scholars argue that Confucius’ most well-known works, the Treatises, do not fall within the boundaries of the classic teachings. According to these researchers, Confucius’ focus on ritual is nowhere to be found in his teachings. Indeed, most scholars view Confucius’ teachings as being geared more towards maintaining order within a polis rather than leading to a liberalisation of society. Because of this, the traditionalist Chinese scholars believe that Confucius and other Chinese leaders who followed his line were actually acting as publicists, or in other words, propagandists for the government, rather than following a path that went beyond ritual.
As a result, Confucius’ works are often considered to be nothing more than the ramblings of a mind that was trying to express its unhappiness. One can easily see this by looking at the word dialects which appears twice in one chapter of the Dogen Zenji. The first paragraph of the analects mentions the topic of heaven, while the second paragraph describes heaven as a place of learning and enlightenment. Based on this it is therefore concluded that Confucius knew little about heaven or about how to enjoy it; this is strongly suggested by his reference to the “middle road” between the two realms. This middle road was something that only Confucius could navigate.
Scholars have also noted that Confucius’ work contains very few references to vegetarianism, as the majority of his work was written during his time when China was experiencing a terrible time with the presence of oppressive autocracies. Confucius however was not above using extremely strong language to describe the lifestyle of animals, something that horrified modern day Chinese. According to some Confucius scholars, Confucius intended the expression that animals are “dirt” to be interpreted literally, much in the way that today we define animal meat.
By examining the relationship between Confucius and the analysts, we can see how they differed to some degree. Whereas the analysts had access to information that the emperor did not, Confucius only had access to information available to only the imperial family. This makes it more clear that his concerns with the lives of other people were purely moral and his ideas on how to lead their lives were purely utilitarian. As such, the ideas found in the Analects are far removed from the ethical teachings of Confucius.
As well as the difference in material conditions, the two philosophers also differed in how they conceptualized time. For Confucius, time is nothing but the passage of one life. For the younger men of the time, however, time was seen as a tool that could be used to hasten the inevitable end of one life and hasten the inevitable end of another. The dialects often presented the scenes of young men’s meeting and being initiated into the royal court. Here, we see a direct parallel to the teachings of Confucius where young men are made to undergo a series of trials in order to prove themselves worthy of a place at the emperor’s court.